Gender at the Gym

On January 18, 2011October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Janis Prince Inniss, Sex and Gender32 Comments

By Janis Prince Inniss

Even if you slept through the ball drop in Times Square and missed other signs, there are several major clues that we're at the beginning of a new year. Many of the indicators are related to weight loss. (There’s a slimmed down Jennifer Hudson in yet another Weight Watchers commercial!) I suppose the hyper focus on losing weight is a result of our overindulgence in high calorie food and drink during the holidays, and also because so many New Year’s resolutions center on weight loss. So as you shop in big and small stores, you'll see weight loss products featured: weights, exercise mats, purported diet aids, and gym clothing. On TV you'll see ads for all of these items, and for gyms.
If you have a gym membership—one that you use—then be prepared for the crowd! Arrive early for your favorite step/cycle or other class because the gym will be packed. All of these “extra” people provide an opportunity to people watch, however. And as a sociologist, people watching is one of my favorite sports. (It’s also one of the reasons that I don’t plug my ears up with music at the gym; I need to hear what’s going on to be fully engaged in my observations! But I digress…)

At my gym, most of the cardio machines are on the second floor of a two story building. The second floor overlooks the first and while I sweat and am supposed to be catching up on my newspaper reading, I have a great view of the goings-on downstairs. From my perch above the main floor at my gym, I can witness all kinds of things; in particular, how we “do” gender.

In the many years that I’ve been going to gyms, I can’t recall seeing a single man of a certain age with a trainer. Do you know what age I’m referring to? I guess it would be the age at which men think of themselves as in their physical prime, because they appear not to have any interest in being told by anyone how to work out until about age 40 or later, despite the fact that they might be quite clueless about how to properly use the equipment. (Most gyms don’t have regular members under age 18.) I’ve seen young men grunting and sweating “pumping iron” with great confidence, even when their technique was wrong. After about age 40, men seem more willing to get some direction, even from a female trainer…but more on that later.

Women, on the other hand, seem to be the bread and butter of trainers. They are much less likely to strike out on their own with weights or machines than similarly ignorant men. Of course, this is not true across the board, but overall my observation is that women are comfortable in group classes (yoga, Zumba, Pilates, step, kick-boxing and other classes are usually almost exclusively the domain of women, with a few brave males appearing occasionally). Usually, women are also found on various cardio machines such as stationery bikes, stair masters, and treadmills. But even the most ardent female runners seem reluctant to step into the unknown world of weights and machines.

Yes, lots of women train with free weights and weight machines, many of them without trainers. What I’ve observed though, is that women who don’t know how to use something seem to bide their time and then get a trainer to show them the ropes. For example, Ella (this is the name I’ve given her) is a cardio regular. At least six days a week, she runs or uses some other cardio machine, in addition to attending a spin class! Yet despite her apparent mastery of cardio, a few weeks ago Ella began using weight machines under the direction of a trainer. A man of Ella’s age—I would guess she’s around 30—and fitness level would be far less likely to hire a trainer based on my observations.

Another way that I observe gender differences at the gym is by noting the ratio of male to female trainers; males in this profession out number females greatly! (As with other such gendered divisions, I have observed a change in the direction of equality: There are now far more women trainers than just a few years ago and in some areas of the country, the ratio may be about equal.) I’ve also noticed that women are more likely to be clients of the few female trainers.

Why do you think that is? Are men—when they do seek direction in this arena—less willing to take instructions from a woman, in what might still be seen as a masculine endeavor? Would your gender and that of a trainer influence your decision about what trainer to employ? How else do people “do gender” in public spaces?

When Our Baby Was Born

On January 14, 2011October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Relationships, Marriage and Family, Social Problems, Politics, and Social Change, Todd Schoepflin19 Comments

By Todd Schoepflin

When I was young I thought a man paced in a hospital waiting room until his wife gave birth. The image in my head was of a new father passing out cigars to celebrate the birth of his child. But my wife has given birth twice now and I’ve yet to spend any time in a waiting room.

For both births I was in the delivery room for the entire time, except when I was asked to step out briefly so that the anesthesiologist could administer something to my wife to relieve the pains of labor. That’s one of the rare situations when it’s acceptable for someone to yell “GIVE ME THE DRUGS,” which was my wife’s catchphrase during our son’s recent birth. Christmas came early for us in 2010, when our son Mack was born on December 10. This blog serves as a sociological reflection of the experience.

One thing that stood out to me was how technology played a significant part on the day of his birth and during the first days of his life. In the delivery room I had a ton of nervous energy. Let’s face it, there’s not much a husband can do during labor except to encourage his wife and do his best to comfort her. There were hours of waiting around before the birth actually happened.

So aside from talking to my wife, I spent some time sending text messages to my brother and a good friend. It was pretty much a way of killing time and sharing my enthusiasm and happiness. When our first son was born in 2007, I don’t recall sending any text messages at all. In fact, if memory serves, the phone I had at that time didn’t even send text messages. For a long time I had no interest in texting and resisted using it as a form of communication. By 2010, however, I succumbed to the texting culture in which we live. So there I was sending text messages while anticipating a major moment in my family’s life.

There’s no way I can adequately describe the miracle of birth. There are no words I can type to do it justice. Let’s just say it’s amazing and mind blowing to see the birth of a baby. Tears of joy spilled out of my eyes when the delivery was successful and our baby had joined the world (this may be one of the few times it’s socially acceptable for a man to cry). The nurse asked me to cut the umbilical cord. I tried to refuse because scissors and newborn flesh seemed like a really bad combination. But the nurse insisted and so I performed the duty.

We called our friends and family to announce our good news, sent some text messages, and, of course, we posted pictures on Facebook. The picture you see is one we put on Facebook, and in response some
people wrote “he’s handsome”–obviously a gender specific term. I think it’s safe to say the same baby in a pink outfit would be called pretty rather than handsome.

Other people wrote to say they liked his name. Would they tell us if they didn’t? Isn’t it a norm to say that someone’s new baby is beautiful and that you like their name? (By the way, remember when Facebook was only for college students? Things sure have changed. My 65-year-old father uploaded pictures from his digital camera onto his Facebook page before we posted pictures on my wife’s page).

Leaving the hospital the first time after the baby was born, I felt different compared to when our first son was born. When our first son was born I felt a dramatic change come over me, and I thought other people could sense it, as if somehow they knew I had just experienced a life-changing event. It was as though there was a sign on my forehead that said “New Father.” This time I felt a different sensation. It was like someone pressed the reset button, and suddenly my wife and I were back to the world of miniature diapers and overnight feedings.

We received gifts—lots of gifts—and it was interesting that some of the gifts were handmade, such as blankets and winter hats. That’s not something I’d expect in a society in which everybody is so busy all of the time. Gift cards are so popular in our society because they make gift-giving an efficient process. Don’t get me wrong, we were happy to receive those too! But nothing compares to the personal touch of a gift made by someone you know. Family members brought over food that they cooked, and that was also a nice personalized touch.

As I write this, our baby is two weeks old, and our first Christmas with him was awesome. A new baby is better than any gift you could find under a tree or in a stocking. Now, if only babies came with manuals, they’d be much easier to figure out! But with uncertainty and anxiety comes adventure and surprises. Babies truly are amazing and have a unique capacity to turn your life upside down.

The Medicalization of Beauty

On January 11, 2011October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Karen Sternheimer, Popular Culture and Consumption, Social Institutions: Work, Education, and Medicine, Social Problems, Politics, and Social Change19 Comments

By Karen Sternheimer

The show Bridalplasty has garnered a large amount of criticism since its debut in November. Featuring brides-to-be competing for cosmetic procedures and the chance to win a high-priced wedding, the show touches on many important sociological issues: gender, culture and beauty, marriage, and rituals.

Another important sociological concept–medicalization–is applicable here. The term refers to the practice of redefining a behavior, concern, or practice as a problem to be “solved” by doctors. At the core of this and other cosmetic surgery- oriented shows, individual differences in appearance are reclassified as problems to be solved through cosmetic procedures.

The process of medicalization makes it seem normal and natural for particular issues to be dealt with via medication or surgery. For instance, children’s behavioral problems can be reclassified as the medical problem of Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and handled with medication. This seems normal and even helpful at a time when nearly ten percent of American children have been diagnosed with ADD, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Medicalization can have dangerous effects. In the 1940s, a new kind of surgery was used to “cure” various forms of mental illness. Lobotomies, described in this PBS film, involved severing part of the brain’s prefrontal cortex in order to produce a calming effect on otherwise agitated patients—sometimes children. This practice continued until the advent of antipsychotic drugs in the 1950s.

You might know people who are genuinely helped by various forms of behavioral medication—I do—and wonder why sociologists even talk about medicalization. Certainly there are positive effects of medicalization.

In the late nineteenth century, peddlers promoted so-called health tonics which often contained powerful drugs like morphine and cocaine. The medicalization of pharmaceuticals has helped reduce the dangerous ingestion of dangerous drugs. Before the Pure Food and Drug Act was passed in 1906, patent medicines kept their ingredients secret, so people might have been taking a tonic laced with heroin and not even know it.

Medicalizing various conditions, like Tourette syndrome, which can lead sufferers to speak and move unintentionally, has helped to provide not just treatment but also understanding; other people might have previously blamed sufferers for failing to control themselves.

The concept of medicalization does not ask that we dismiss the institution of medicine at all; the point is that we should critically consider how we think about some things previously believed to be “normal,” and how these issues become problems that have medical fixes. Some behaviors that were once considered to be simply sinful—such as heavy drinking—are now widely thought to be illnesses, and medical treatments and facilities are available to help sufferers.

And of course physicians think critically about medicalization too, particularly those concerned with ethical practices. One surgeon told ABC News that the show Bridalplasty violates several ethical principles, particularly the notion that surgical procedures are “rewards” rather than carefully made decisions, weighing the potential health risks with benefits.

It’s also interesting to consider which issues become medicalized, and when. At a time when many doctors are struggling to provide basic care for patients facing rising medical costs, cosmetic procedures are a very lucrative business. Since many procedures aren’t covered by insurance, patients pay the fees directly and doctors don’t have to deal with the bureaucracy of reimbursement.

The appearance of aging becomes defined as pathological right at the same time as we have a very large cohort of aging baby boomers, a ready-made market for new products that supposedly help people look younger. Mix in a tight job market where age can be an obstacle to finding work, and the demand to alter one’s appearance becomes even stronger.

Do you know people who have had cosmetic surgery? I do; in fact I know several. The more we know people who have had such procedures done, the more we see ads and hear celebrity news about new drugs and procedures, the more normal and natural the medicalization of beauty becomes.

Who doesn’t want to do whatever they can to look “better?” This post is not meant to be a criticism of those who seek to alter their appearance, but instead as a discussion of the impact of medicalization. What other effects of medicalization can you think of?

Holiday Shopping Breach

On January 7, 2011October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Crime and Deviance, Sally Raskoff, Social Psychology11 Comments

By Sally Raskoff

Imagine walking through your local shopping mall, passing many shoppers and stores full of holiday items. It’s cold outside so most people have coats on and are bundled up in many layers of clothing. You’re walking along thinking of what you need or want.

Imagine now that you become aware that something in your field of vision looks odd. It breaks you out of your thoughts and you notice that a shopper coming towards you looks different in some way from all the other people at the mall.

It quickly becomes apparent that this person has a coat and sweater on like everyone else but their legs are bare. Completely bare. No pant legs covering those legs. Really!

You look at their face to try to figure out why their legs are completely bare. You don’t want to look down at those legs again just in case it’s not that there are no pant legs but no pants at all. Your quick glance up shows you that they are walking along with an expression similar to others and they are carrying a few shopping bags just like everyone else. Except for those bare legs. Those really bare legs, as far up as you could notice without looking further.

This was my experience today. I took a break from grading sociology papers and went out to walk and pick up some things for the holidays. Was I rewarded with an experience I would not want to experience every day!

As I realized that this person might be shopping with no pants on, she passed me and I continued looking at the woman who was walking behind her and towards me. She had also noticed the bare-legged woman as she came out of a store and walked in the same direction. Her expression was priceless, and she clearly was as shocked and confused by this as I was. She looked down and up and down and up and over at me to see if I too had noticed. I nodded slightly and made a subtle facial gesture to acknowledge that I had seen the same image she had – although she was looking at the person from the rear and because I did not turn around, I’m not quite sure what else she saw that I missed.

As I kept walking in my original direction, I wondered how salespeople would handle it if they were interacting directly with this person. She was carrying shopping bags, so it seemed like she might have already had some kind of sales interaction. However, if that had happened, that interaction did not prompt her to put any pants on!

Two things might explain why the woman was dressed the way she was. One, the shopping bags might not be from a recent purchase. She might be a homeless person simply carrying her belongings through the mall. I did not notice any obvious signs of homelessness, though, so I have no other evidence for that theory.

Second, its possible that she was wearing some sort of really-short shorts, although they would have had to be really short, as short as underwear. Another interpretation of the situation might be that she had some mental health issues and was indeed unaware that she was not fully dressed. She did appear to be an older person, although I didn’t see her clearly enough to estimate her age.

I picked up my pace to get home and write this blog because there are so many aspects of this situation that can be analyzed sociologically.(The grading would have to wait!)

What I saw at the mall was first and foremost a great example of a norm breach. This person was most definitely breaking (or breaching) the norm of wearing a full set of clothes while shopping or otherwise inhabiting a public place. The person behind her was noticing this breach and we were communicating through non-verbal gestures to acknowledge it.

Typically repairs follow a norm breach where people will work to “fix” the breach and return life to normal. The other shopper and I did this after our brief eye contact and head nods by continuing our shopping as if nothing out of the norm had happened.

Once security officers, salespeople, or many other shoppers notice her I would predict that a more active repair might occur, where she is either questioned about her mental state and/or asked to leave the mall. Or to put on some pants.

How else might your sociological imagination can help to explain or interpret this situation?

Culture and Parties

On December 31, 2010October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Immigration, Population, Aging, and Demography, Janis Prince Inniss, Popular Culture and Consumption, Relationships, Marriage and Family17 Comments

By Janis Prince Inniss

So you guys are married?

How long have you been married?

Any children? How old are they? Two girls? Two boys?

Where are you from? I can hear an accent.

And he, where is he from?

Where did you guys meet?

What do you do? Where do you work?

As you attend social gatherings this holiday season, will you meet people who ask these kinds of questions? Maybe you will be asking these questions yourself. Tell me a little bit about the people with whom you’ll be “hanging” and I think I can make a reasonably good prediction about whether you’re likely to be asked such questions; I can also make a decent guess about the food you’ll be served. It’s not that I’m psychic, but culture does impact how we “hang out” with others.

There are fellow Caribbean people with whom I’ve associated for many years and have never asked such questions of each other. In fact, it was only a couple weeks ago that I learned the profession of a Caribbean woman I have known for almost 10 years. (Let’s call this woman Jean.)

It’s not that Jean and I don’t see each other often. We have many of the same friends and attend many of the same gatherings –many of which are in each other’s homes. I enjoy Jean’s company and would guess that she feels the same way about me. We’ve talked about many important issues including parenting, religion, churches, being women of a ”certain age”…personal issues, to be sure.

Yet, we rarely talk about our careers. We each know where the other works and will ask something very general like: “How is work?” “How are things at ZYX Corporation?” But typically, we don’t spend time discussing what we do. And so after all these years, it was a native born American in our midst who asked Jean, “What do you do?” I couldn’t help but be amused that after knowing Jean for so many years—and knowing quite a bit about her—I had no idea what she does professionally.

It’s not that Caribbean people don’t discuss work; we do. But we have different rules regarding such topics—deemed personal—than many North Americans do. For example, probably due to the occupational prestige accorded professors, there has been some buzz even among my Caribbean friends about my recent career change. (Read more about occupational prestige here.) And with close Caribbean friends, we talk about our careers, and lots of other highly personal things. However, Caribbean people usually don’t ask these questions—which are considered nosy—as a way of getting to know someone.

When I started graduate school, I was excited to start receiving invitations to classmates’ and professors’ homes. It was the first time I learned the term “potluck” and remember being baffled when, in response to my queries, I was told that I could bring chips and dip. Chips and dip?

I figured the host would provide the more substantial food like rice and chicken. I still remember being stunned at the first of several such events when the entire menu consisted of finger foods; it is no exaggeration to say that I experienced culture shock! I kept looking for the real food. I could not believe that a party could take place with a variety of chips, dips, crudités, nuts, desserts, and drinks! (In other words, everything but anything resembling an entree!) I would leave these events starving with the slightly upset stomach I get from noshing on these snacks. I learned though; after a few of these experiences, I realized that going to these parties was not an excuse to skip cooking; I would have dinner at home and then enjoy a few nibbles at these events.

This is exactly how not to have a party for Caribbean people. (My classmates at USC and professors were all North American.) At every party hosted by my Jamaican friends, I have been served Jerk Chicken and Rice and Peas. While there may be some other variables, those two delicious dishes have been constants. Parties hosted by other Caribbean people include dishes such as Curried Chicken, Baked Chicken, but always, always there is rice and chicken among other offerings.

Whether it’s being held at noon, four, or eight in the evening, Caribbean gatherings include heavy food. And when I’m invited to one of these, I know that I don’t need to cook and eat before attending.

So think of this as a primer for holiday gatherings. If you’re going to be among North Americans, expect finger foods and questions like the ones I included at the beginning. If you’re among (English speaking) Caribbean people, know that those questions may be off-putting and that you’ll be served rice and chicken in some form. (Note that as with any generalization, there are bound to be variations not addressed by such characterizations.)

Culture affects large and small aspects of our lives. Here, I’ve focused on only two: food and an aspect of interaction. Do you think these peculiarities of these two cultures tell us anything important about what each culture values?

There Oughta Be a Law? Formal and Informal Social Control

On December 24, 2010October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Behind the Headlines, Crime and Deviance, Karen Sternheimer, Social Problems, Politics, and Social Change16 Comments

By Karen Sternheimer

By now you have probably heard that San Francisco recently banned the sale of toys with unhealthy children's food, most notably McDonald’s Happy Meals, within city limits. Proponents argue that toys encourage children to eat unhealthy food, contributing to obesity and its related health complications. Critics suggest that this is an example of an overreaching attempt to legislate personal habits, which some refer to as the “nanny state.”

Regardless of your views on this ban, this is a great example of something that sociologists call formal social control: the attempt to alter behavior through rules, laws, and sanctions.

While the government is often a source of formal social control, many other organizations have codified rules with stated sanctions in attempt to regulate its members. Universities have rules about plagiarism and cheating, companies have policies that provide guidelines on employee behavior, and religious institutions provide specific instructions about how its members should behave.

Consequences for violation of formal rules can range from arrest and imprisonment, getting fired, or being expelled to more modest sanctions like a traffic ticket, a stern warning by the boss, or a failing grade on an assignment.

Generally speaking, creating new laws is often popular. Each year at the start of the New Year, dozens of new laws go into effect around the country. In fact, when I ask my students to think of ways to come up with solutions for particular problems, the most popular response is to make new laws to punish violators and possibly deter those from committing an infraction in the future.

Many laws are symbolic—even though they might not be enforced (or even enforceable) we like having them because of the message they send. For instance, it’s practically impossible to regulate many forms of prostitution, especially if the solicitation takes place out of the public view. And yet few lawmakers would argue for a repeal of such laws that are generally popular with the public.

The San Francisco toy ban is in some ways a symbolic law; although it might lead McDonald’s to change their Happy Meals in the city, its real goal is to promote healthy eating. But the law can’t guarantee that people won’t eat fattening food elsewhere, and it won’t ensure that parents purchase and prepare healthy meals for their kids. What might do that?

Our eating habits are likely shaped by the people closest to us, not to mention the food we have access to in our neighborhoods, rather than by formal sanctions. Sociologists examine how informal social control, or the reactions of our friends, family, and community members shape our behavior. Food choices emerge in part from our family and cultural backgrounds; people who grow up eating foods high in calories and fat might find it hard to change their diet if the people around them continue to serve this food at gatherings or chide someone for new food choices. It can be very difficult for one member of a family to decide to change their diet if they sit down to dinner with others who are eating foods they are trying to avoid.

Just as formal social control cannot always prevent people from breaking the law (how many of you have exceeded posted speed limits?), informal social control isn’t always effective at changing people’s behavior either.

Overweight children—and sometimes adults—are sometimes teased and berated by their peers. This social rejection, a key component of informal social control, often causes people to use overeating as way to cope with stress and sadness, which in turn leads to more social rejection.

In some cases the fear of social rejection acts as a powerful force in shaping our behavior well beyond what people eat. Presumably part of what makes people do their job well or earn good grades comes from a desire for approval from our friends, family, or co-workers. This can be a much more powerful force than formal rules or the threat of sanctions.

Whether the San Francisco toy ban leads to healthier eating habits in its children remains to be seen. Despite the allure of formal social control, it can be somewhat limited in its ability to shape our behavior.

Behind the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Survey

On December 17, 2010October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Behind the Headlines, Class and Stratification, Sally Raskoff, Sex and Gender, Social Institutions: Work, Education, and Medicine, Social Problems, Politics, and Social Change11 Comments

By Sally Raskoff

The Department of Defense recently released the results of their study of what would happen if the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell (DADT) policy were repealed. While you might have an opinion about this policy, it’s always a good idea to read the research yourself; it is fascinating if you read it carefully! I have included page numbers here in case you want to find the information in the report on your own.

They gathered a lot of data from different sources using different methods to create, as they acknowledge, one of the largest surveys in the history of the military (page 1). For the data, they “solicited the views of nearly 400,000” service members and over 150,000 spouses, netting responses from 114,052 and 44,266 respectively, a tremendous sample size for any survey.

They also set up online access for sharing opinions through which they received 72,384 responses. Ninety-five “information exchange forums” at 51 bases and installations prompted interaction with over 24,000 service members. Focus groups (140) and interviews with people in leadership positions, relevant groups, foreign military representatives, and of gay and lesbian current and former service members rounded out the data collection. Additionally, RAND corporation, a research institution advising on policy issues, also conducted a study of military personnel and sexual orientation, updating an older study they had done in 1993.

That is a lot of data to amass! Because the research was based on stratified random sampling, data can be accurately generalized to the entire military population. The total number of people on active duty in the U.S. military is almost 1.5 million, so they attempted to survey about a third of that group.

Service members were sampled according to military service, active/reserve components, pay grade, military occupation, deployment status, location, gender, and family status. The sampling plan also called for an over-sampling of certain sub-groups (e.g., enlisted service members at the grade of E1–E3) who in recent Department of Defense surveys tended to have lower response rates than the overall military population. This combination of stratification and selected over-sampling was intended to ensure that survey responses were as representative of the force as possible. (Page 36)

The results of the study surprised many, because the overwhelming pattern is one of support for (or at least neutrality about) repealing the policy and allowing gay and lesbian people to serve openly. This mirrors public support for either repealing DADT and/or allowing gay and lesbian people to serve openly in the military, as the graph below details.

Many responses pointed out that people already know of other service members who are gay or lesbian (69%) and that knowing this doesn’t affect their readiness or work life (92%). The largest differences come in the Marine Corps, among various combat groups, and among chaplains, none of which is surprising.

The emphasis on masculine culture is at its strongest in combat, thus tolerance for homosexuality is, by definition, at its lowest. Hegemonic masculinity requires heterosexuality, since male power depends on dominating others, including females, and homosexuality subverts that norm. Chaplains who are most likely to oppose the repeal of DADT tend to be affiliated with denominations that believe that homosexuality is a sin, thus the chaplains would have trouble counseling gay and lesbian soldiers.

However, if DADT were repealed, what would change? Since gay and lesbian people are already in the service, the largest change will be that they cannot be discharged if their sexual orientation were discovered or revealed.

The photo below depicts, from left to right: Brigadier General Keith Kerr, Brigadier General Virgil Richard, Congressman Meehan, Rear Admiral Alan Steinman, Brigadier General Evelyn Foote and C. Dixon Osburn, Executive Director of Servicemembers Legal Defense Network. At this meeting in 2003, Kerr, Richard, and Steinman, all retired high-ranking officers, disclosed that they are gay and discussed the problems within the DADT policy.

The DADT report mentions that any problems or fears that people hold rest are the result of stereotypes, not realities. The problems for Marines and combat groups should be seen in the context that these are military units whose directives are to follow orders and behave in accordance with established standards. The report clearly mentions that any violation of such standards should be met with swift justice.

As a former member of the military, I clearly remember the days in basic training when you are taught basic rules, customs, and courtesies. Although I was a female service member in a recently integrated force, it was clear that job number one was following the orders of the day even if one didn’t understand them or agree with them. Thus if a policy existed, it was adhered to.

The authors also acknowledge that previous integrations by race and gender were ultimately successful even when such policy changes were met with more hostility and resistance than this report indicates the repeal of DADT would be. Much as ”unprofessional” relationships were feared, especially with gender integration, the fact remains that there are already policies against such fraternization and those policies apply to any relationships, not just to those specifically heterosexual or homosexual.

The dilemma with DADT is that it is in conflict with existing norms and policies of honesty and integrity, since it asks people to hide who they are, even if their identity has nothing to do with military readiness.

The study doesn’t spend much time on age differences (see page 59, focus group data), although some findings did suggest that the different age cohorts would have different opinions about this issue. Younger younger people tend to be less homophobic than older people, for example.

The report’s Figure 1, pictured above, clearly shows the greatest challenges will be in social cohesion, although the “r
isk” level is not very high. Previous efforts to integrate the military suggest that training and education can help the troops meet this challenge.

Without DADT, military life will continue to parallel civilian life in that some gay and lesbian people will be “out” while others will not be. Looking at the survey data, one might guess that in the Marines and in combat units especially, anyone who is gay or lesbian will remain quiet about their personal life. Just as many gay and lesbian pro athletes remain quiet until they retire, since military life is rooted in also traditional notions of gender, many Marines and soldiers in combat units may still wait to come out even if DADT is repealed. What other occupations may be linked with traditional ideas about gender and sexuality?

Occupational Prestige and Adjunct Faculty

On December 10, 2010October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Class and Stratification, Janis Prince Inniss, Social Institutions: Work, Education, and Medicine3 Comments

As he made his way across a crowded room, eyes trained on me, the stranger approached with purpose. He ignored my husband standing next to me and said, “I want to meet the professor!”

I completed my doctorate in sociology more than ten years ago and have been on the faculty of various universities for about as long. However, after a long hiatus from teaching during which I have held full-time research (faculty) positions, I have started teaching again. My recent move to teaching at the university level has given me great personal satisfaction and even joy. But as much as I am surprised by the depth of pleasure I am experiencing in this work, I am often surprised by others’ responses to my new job.

The encounter I describe above is typical of the excitement and reverence people exhibit upon learning what I do. I’ve been surprised by this reaction in general and particularly surprised when friends also express a new level of reverence.

That friends and strangers show deference to me because I’m teaching is noteworthy for a few reasons. Amusingly, just about no one ever reacted in the same way when I told them I was full-time research faculty. I think that in large part—although few admitted this and even fewer could find the words to ask the questions that would help them understand—people outside of academia have no idea what that means. Stating that I was research faculty was a conversation-ender! By contrast, everyone knows what a professor is and professors enjoy immense occupational prestige.

People outside of academia (for the most part) do not make distinctions among university professors. This is in great contrast to those within the field, where those distinctions are the source of much angst. Usually, university teaching faculty are promoted as follows: from assistant professor to associate professor, and ultimately to (full) professor. Promotions are based on effectiveness in teaching, productivity in research and publications, and participation in service and advising; these are also the factors considered in granting tenure. Outside of this career path, however is the hidden ”sweatshop” of university teaching: adjunct faculty. I currently work as an adjunct faculty member.

Typically, adjunct faculty are part-timers (independent contractors), receive no benefits, and are ineligible for promotion or tenure.

(See this video for a sardonic look at how adjunct faculty are viewed in academia.)

Why do universities employ adjuncts? Adjuncts are cheap labor! As various businesses implemented more and more cost cutting measures, universities have done the same. As you can imagine, faculty salaries are a major item on university budgets so many universities began hiring contract workers to teach a portion of classes. It’s a no-brainer to see the economic savings universities attain by hiring adjuncts: on average, full professors earn just over $100,000 a year and assistant professors earn around $70,000 at universities offering doctoral degrees, whereas adjuncts are paid about $1,200-$5,500 per course. In hiring adjuncts, universities save on health benefits, salaries, retirement plans and even on office space. (In many cases, adjuncts huddle in one small space instead of individual offices.) Whereas full-time faculty have a say in what classes they will teach, adjuncts are usually given the left-over classes that their tenure track counterparts abhor—usually the large general education courses. On the other hand, adjuncts do not usually have research, publishing, and administrative duties.

Did you know about these distinctions among university faculty? Are you aware that most professors have one major career goal—that is, to become tenured (full) professors? For those familiar with the tenure process, the case of the professor who killed three and injured another three colleagues after being denied tenure (twice) is a tragic symbol of the pressures and pain felt when faculty fail in their bid for this holy-grail of academic rewards.

But outside of the profession, people make few, if any, distinctions among college professors. Therefore, people don’t even think to ask what kind of teaching position I have before becoming excited about my work. (Given that my major role is to teach, it’s an open question about whether the prestige of the profession is tied solely to full-time status). I’m now referred to as “Doctor” and “Professor” by people who did not previously address me that way, even when they knew I was on the research faculty of a large university.

As a researcher, I was moderately advanced in the field, had been promoted, enjoyed a large corner office with floor to ceiling windows, and was earning a decent salary. Many people did not understand my job, though, and to those who did, that occupation did not seem as prestigious as being a college professor. Conversely, the occupational prestige of university professor is such that although I am currently at the bottom of the academic totem pole, people outside of academia regard my work highly. What other contradictions exist within careers that carry high levels of prestige?

The Sociology of Jargon

On December 7, 2010October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Karen Sternheimer, Popular Culture and Consumption, Social Institutions: Work, Education, and Medicine, Theory7 Comments

By Karen Sternheimer

What’s the first thing most people do when studying for an exam, especially one with multiple choice questions? They will probably try and memorize the new terms they have learned, translating them back to define words they already know. In short, they attempt to learn the jargon used in their class.

Although I try and avoid too much jargon in my classes and in my writing, there is no way to completely eliminate jargon from our lives. Social groups create special language—like jargon —in part to make communication short cuts, but mostly to clearly delineate who is a member and who is not. Members understand the lingo and learn to speak it fluently.

Sociology has its fair share of jargon; in order for any discipline to define itself as unique and important, it must come up with a list of terms that only insiders know. Of course sociology and the social sciences are not alone in this: lawyers, bankers, and other professions all have their jargon too and that makes it hard for the rest of us to know what they are talking about. Physicians might use terms like “Rhinorrhea” and “Sternutation” instead of the more commonly used “runny nose” and “sneeze” in part to heighten their sense of expertise. They know words we don’t, therefore they are experts.

I learned this my first semester of graduate school. Classmates would sometimes make impassioned statements so filled with jargon, and much of what they said made no sense to me. I started observing the same thing at conferences, and more often than not it was graduate students rather than professors who used as much jargon as possible.

At one conference, a fellow grad student leaned over to me and sheepishly asked for translation. “I have no idea what she just said,” I admitted. “But I bet she didn’t know either.” Using a lot of jargon in a presentation was a common tactic new sociologists used to try and prove they belonged.

Exclusive professions and academia are easy targets to pick on for their ubiquitous use of jargon, but they are not alone. I once worked in an office where workers used a great deal of jargon not part of the wider industry, but unique to that office environment. The words were basically shortcuts used to make communication faster. Because the work was rather repetitive, it required the same tasks to be done over and over. Proofing. Rewriting. Rerunning numbers. Spinning the meaning of the numbers to please clients.

Unique words also served as euphemisms, particularly for the last task. No one overtly said we would be bending the truth, but if one was told to “finrep it” (or finesse the report) we knew exactly what that meant.

Jargon’s close cousin is slang. While jargon is considered so formal that most people wouldn’t recognize it, a slang expression may be widely recognized but not considered a formal word within the language. So ironically, the word few people know reflects higher status, and the word that many (if not most) people know and use regularly has a lower status in the language.

Slang is common within different subcultures, and may or may not be known to outsiders. Sometimes adopting the slang of a subculture—just like learning the jargon of a profession—becomes a way for people to attempt at least partial membership or awareness of a group. Marketers sometimes even borrow slang to make their product seem cool and linked with a desirable group.

Your family might also have its own unique slang. Years of inside jokes in my family has led to new meanings of words that others might not pick up on without a lengthy back story. Children sometimes come up with new meanings for words that the adults around them reuse but may be nonsensical to outsiders.

The truth is, we all use some form of jargon or slang in our daily lives that reflects our professional, group, or family memberships. That may not make memorizing it for a test any more fun, but it might make it easier to know why jargon exists in the first place.

Seeking Higher Education: A Peek Behind the Scenes

On December 3, 2010October 9, 2025 By econnellIn Behind the Headlines, Class and Stratification, Sally Raskoff, Social Institutions: Work, Education, and Medicine, Social Problems, Politics, and Social Change25 Comments

By Sally Raskoff

Would you agree that education is an institution in trouble? Because of the current national and global economic issues, educational institutions are struggling with financial woes that include budget cuts and pressure to increase fees and tuition. Most public colleges have cut their offerings repeatedly since 2007. Many college and university systems are increasing fees and tuition and are juggling an ever increasing pool of applicants.

This fall at my community college, we turned away more students than we were able to enroll. In previous years, we would have been able to add classes to accommodate the demand, but budget constraints prevented us from doing that this year. Recently, a study lambasted community colleges for their students’ lack of program completion. While such rates are important to consider, they are not the only measure of success in such a complex institution. Today I attended a meeting at which we decided how to make further cuts to our winter program. People might assume that such decisions are made quickly and without much thought. However, this was the third meeting that lasted over two hours and in which I witnessed deep, detailed discussion of the budget issues and criteria used in making such difficult decisions. The effect of these difficult decisions on students was central to our discussions.

Our mission is to educate students with programs in basic skills, general education transfer, and career education. The state budget that have filtered down to us have repeatedly forced us to cut classes offered. Our budget is based on how many students we have and the only way to meet the budget is to reduce the number of classes offered so that we can have fewer students, and thus can balance our budget.

At this point, we had already cut all other funds down to the bone and frozen all staff hiring. As a result, we find ourselves unable to refill the ink in all of our printers. Because we have half of the maintenance staff that our buildings need, we either clean the classrooms ourselves or get swept up in the massive amounts of trash that are generated by the thousands of students that move through the building each day.

There are other issues that affect community college student completion rates, beyond budget cuts too. As I write this in my office, I hear a student out in the hallway on the phone with her ex-partner “discussing” with him why he doesn’t participate in parenting their child and expressing her frustration at his absence in their lives. This morning I spoke with a cousin of a student who has legal system obligations that have caused her to be absent. Last semester, at least two of my students were homeless, and one of them finished the course while the other one left mid-semester for destinations unknown. I have a few other students who seem to need to enter a rehab facility soon.

Max Weber's concept of verstehen can help us understand some of the challenges people seeking higher education are facing. Weber argued that we must immerse ourselves in a setting to understand what goes on there. To fully understand an organization and its outcomes, one must realize that people exist there and life is indeed full of complex interactions, goals, and contributions.

Verstehen, should remind researchers that community college students face many obstacles to their educational achievement and thus budget cuts affect them more than they may affect students at four-year institutions. Measuring success and retention rates based on semester- to -semester continuity does not acknowledge that our students come to school and then may have to leave to take care of various issues , including family responsibilities, legal and economic issues, or developing maturity. Many students who leave one semester come back within a year or two or three; others may go to some other college or university. I have had many students check in with me years after they had a class with me and their educational paths are varied as their fingerprints.

Without verstehen, researchers might not realize that a singular measure like retention or completion rates do not capture the reality of such a diverse institution tasked with such a complex set of goals. I’m concerned about the students who have been pushed out of the educational system. Because we have cut our course offerings and give registration priority to those who have accumulated the most credits, the students who have been unable to register are those who are just getting started. If you’re reading this for a class, consider yourself fortunate that you could register for the class! Consider all of the people who wanted to be students who could not because we are cutting education to balance our yearly state budgets. Consider what they might be doing instead of getting an education. Consider the impact this will have on the state when an entire generation of students have not been able to get the education they needed and desired.

With verstehen, we just might see all of these issues and realize that to get out of our economic problems, we cannot just focus on the economy and continue to privilege corporations over people. An educated populace would be better prepared to contribute to society through work and civic engagement and preserve our democratic ideals. What do we have without education?